Direct production of thermal antineutrons and antiprotons

ABSTRACT

A method for obtaining free thermal antineutrons within the cage-like structure of a fullerene molecule comprising irradiating the fullerene molecule with free neutrons causing free neutrons to be trapped within the fullerene molecule wherein the trapped neutron oscillates between the neutron and antineutron states. A method for producing antiprotons comprising irradiating a fullerene molecule with free neutrons and trapping the neutrons within the fullerene molecule such that the neutrons oscillate between neutron and antineutron states and in the antineutron state decay and produce antiprotons.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention disclosure relates to a new method for the directproduction of thermal antineutrons and thermal antiprotons from thermalneutrons. The process of neutron-antineutron oscillation produces theantineutrons. The neutron-antineutron oscillation process producesthermal antiprotons when the antineutrons decay.

The process of neutron-antineutron oscillation is a prediction of grandunification models in gauge field theories. Ignatovich¹ and Golub²discuss the theory behind this prediction. Stated plainly, the theorypredicts that a neutron that is cold enough to be contained by theinterior walls of a suitable vessel may oscillate into an antineutronwithout violating any quantum conservation laws. Ignatovich¹ alsopredicts that the probability of an oscillation is proportional to thenumber of reflections of the cold neutron from the walls of the vessel.No current art demonstrates the ability to cause neutron-antineutronoscillation to occur. The applicants demonstrate that the art in thisdisclosure represents the first reduction of neutron-antineutronoscillation theory into practice.

Published Application 2002/0037066 discloses that fullerene molecules,such as C₇₀, trap free neutrons inside the internal cavity of thefullerene molecule. The present disclosure is based on the discoverythat neutrons trapped inside fullerene molecules undergoneutron-antineutron oscillation. In the previous disclosure, theapplicants referenced neutron-antineutron oscillation only as atheoretical possibility.

The applicants have found that the number of neutron reflections persecond per trapped neutron, as produced by this art, is similar to thenumber of reflections that Ignatovich¹ predicts will produce aneutron-antineutron oscillation. Once a trapped neutron oscillates intoan antineutron, the same number of reflections presumably returns theantineutron to the neutron state.

In other words, once the interior cavities of C₇₀ fullerene moleculestrap a population of neutrons, approximately 50% of the populationactually exists in the antineutron state at any subsequent time.

The internal cavities of the fullerene molecules contain the neutronsand antineutrons until the neutrons and antineutrons decay or until theapplication of other current art forces their release. U.S. PublishedApplication 2002/0037066 discusses this current art. If the applicationof current art does not first release them, the neutrons trapped in thefullerene molecules decay by the process of beta decay. The resultantbeta decay radiation has a characteristic half-life of 10.25 minutes asthe previous patent disclosure demonstrates.

The trapped antineutrons decay by positron decay. Positrons areelectrons with a positive electrical charge. In other words, positronsare antielectrons. Positrons are distinguishable from beta particlesbecause they will annihilate with electrons. The result is a distinctivegamma energy emission at 511 KeV. A gamma spectrometer readily detectsand identifies this gamma emission.

The applicants' research demonstrates that these annihilation energyemissions exhibit a 10.25-minute decay half-life. This is the samehalf-life as the trapped neutrons demonstrated in the previousdisclosure. The accepted half-life of a free neutron is 10.25 minutes.Antineutrons, presumably, also have a 10.25-minute half-life.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with the invention, each free neutron in a population offree neutrons trapped inside fullerene molecules oscillates between theneutron and antineutron states. This oscillation occurs at a rapid rateso that a significant percentage of the population is in the antineutronstate at any given time. The predictions of Ignatovich¹ and otherssuggest that 50% of the trapped neutrons are in the antineutron state atany given time.

One manifestation of this invention is a process that easily andeconomically converts free thermal neutrons into free thermalantineutrons. These antineutrons may decay to positrons, antiprotons,and neutrinos. The antiprotons thus produced have low thermal energy. Amethod that directly converts neutrons to antineutrons is new art. Theability of neutrons to undergo this conversion is aheretofore-undemonstrated prediction of theoretical physics. Thetrapping of the antineutrons is new art. Current art permits collectionand storage of thermal neutrons but not the trapping and storage ofantineutrons.

Another manifestation of the invention is a fullerene containing atrapped antiproton.

Another manifestation of the invention is a fullerene having a 511 KeVAnn. γ radiation with a half-life of 10.25 minutes +/−2 minutes.

Another manifestation of the invention is a method for producingantiprotons.

Current Art

Ignatovich¹ and Golub² both discuss the possibility that neutrons mayoscillate into antineutrons. This is a prediction of grand unificationmodels in gauge field theories. As long as the electrostatic charge of aneutron is identically zero, this oscillation violates no quantumconservation law. It does violate one experimental “law,” theconservation of baryon number. There is no theoretical basis for this“law.” No published peer-reviewed observations violate it.

A characteristic of cold neutrons exploited by current art is theirability to reflect from solid surfaces. Ignatovich³ and Golub⁴ as wellas Kosvintsev⁵ discuss this phenomenon. It allows the capture ofneutrons inside a vessel. The publication date of Kosvintsev⁵, Jan-Feb1977, illustrates that this art is not new. Further, Ignatovich¹proposes that, in theory; neutron-antineutron oscillation is detectablein such an experiment. Ignatovich¹ proposes that the probability ofoccurrence of neutron-antineutron oscillation is a function of thenumber of neutron reflections from the vessel walls.

The probability of occurrence, according to Ignatovich¹, is roughly oneoscillation for every 10¹³ reflections. The detection ofneutron-antineutron oscillation may be a simple matter of filling asuitable vessel with enough cold neutrons so that the number ofreflections raises the probability of an oscillation to near unity. Oncea neutron oscillates into an antineutron state, it may annihilate with aneutron, or it may decay. It may also oscillate back to a neutron. Theantiproton resulting from antineutron decay would annihilate with aproton. Appropriate instrumentation would detect and identify eitherneutron-antineutron or proton-antiproton annihilation events through theunique high-energy gamma signature of each reaction.

Ignatovich¹ and Golub² also discuss the technical problems that haveprevented positive experimental results to date. In current art, thenumbers of reflections occurring before all the neutrons decay or atomicnuclei capture them are orders of magnitude less than the calculatednumber required. Hence, the invention in this disclosure is needed toestablish circumstances where a sufficient number of reflections canoccur.

Fullerene molecules are a third allotrope of carbon. Fullerenes usuallyhave the form of hollow spheroids or long hollow tubes closed byhemispherical ends. All fullerenes are dense shells of carbon atomssurrounding an interior cavity. Fullerenes exhibit a surprising varietyof phenomena, from ferromagnetism to superconductivity. Other carbonallotropes do not exhibit these phenomena.

One novel behavior that fullerenes exhibit is the ability to trap oradduct a variety of chemical species inside their internal cavities.Both peer reviewed and popular literature have widely reported thisbehavior. The only requirement seems to be that the internal cavity ofthe fullerene is larger than the adducted specie. The chemical specieforms an internal adduct with the fullerene when it is inside thecavity. Either it bonds to the internal surface of the fullerene or itmoves freely within the confines of the cavity.

Less widely reported is the ability of fullerene molecules to forminternal adducts with subatomic particles. Niedermayer6 and Percival⁷discuss this phenomenon observed in both C₆₀ and C₇₀. The fullerenemolecules are able to form internal adducts with muons in the form ofmuonium. Percival⁷ states that the muonium appears to be a “non-bondedmuonium inside the cage.” Niedermayer⁶ states, “The calculations ofPercival and Wlodek indicate that muonium is stabilized in the interiorof the C₆₀ at approximately the center of the molecule.” The incidentmuons in both papers are quite energetic at 4 MeV. The fullerenes stilltrap 25% of these incident muons as muonium adducts. The applicantsinfer from this that the trapping mechanism, what ever it may be, isrobust.

Estreicher⁸ calculated the existence of a deep energy well at the centerof a C₆₀ fullerene molecule when the adducted specie is a simplehydrogen atom. Jimenez-Vasquez⁹ demonstrated experimentally that C₆₀fullerene molecules form internal adducts with tritium atoms. Thispartially confirms Estreicher⁸. Jimenez-Vasquez⁹ did not confirm thatthe tritium adduct was at the center of the C₆₀ fullerene. TheJimenez-Vasquez⁹ tritium may bond to the interior surface of the C₆₀molecule. The applicants consider this unlikely because the muons ofNiedermayer⁶ and Percival⁷ only bonded to the exterior of the C₆₀ andC₇₀ fullerene molecules. The muonium adducts, which mimic hydrogenatoms, were internal, and were not bonded to the wall of the fullerenemolecule. Huffman¹⁰ demonstrates macroscopic containers that trapneutrons, also an electro-statically neutral specie with a nuclearmagnetic dipole moment, by the neutron's own magnetic field. Themagnetic field of the neutron is what prevents low energy neutrons frompenetrating solid surfaces. The applicants believe this same mechanismtraps muonium, simple hydrogen, and tritium in the center of fullerenemolecules. Like neutrons, they are all electro-statically neutral andthey all have magnetic fields.

In accordance with the invention, the internal surfaces of fullerenemolecules should produce the same behavior in cold neutrons and coldantineutrons as the cold neutron behavior produced by the internalsurfaces of the macroscopic graphite vessels described by Ignatovich³,Golub⁴, and Kosvintsev⁵. Both macroscopic graphite vessels and fullerenemolecular “vessels” are made of densely packed carbon atoms. The nucleiof carbon atoms have a very low probability of neutron capture. Thisproperty of carbon nuclei reduces the chance that the process of neutroncapture by the carbon nuclei in the walls of a vessel will remove freeneutrons from the cavity of either vessel.

The interior cavities of C₇₀ molecules seem to be superior to graphitevessels in this respect. The work of Estreicher⁸ indicates that thecavity of a fullerene molecule may hold an interior free neutron furtheraway from the nuclei of the carbon atoms than graphite does. In agraphite vessel, the same free neutron could approach the carbon atomsmore closely. This increases the chances that the carbon nuclei of amacroscopic graphite vessel would capture a free neutron inside thevessel.

Each neutron trapped inside a fullerene will see the requisite number ofreflections, about 10¹³ as calculated by Ignatovich¹, approximately onceeach second. This is due to the tiny diameter of the internal cavity ofthe fullerene molecule, about 3 angstroms, and the thermal velocity of aneutron, about 2700 meters/second, at room temperature.

The estimate of 10¹³ reflections per second is conservative. Asdiscussed already, Niedermayer⁶ and Percival⁷ suggest that the muoniumdoes not have freedom to move about the entire internal cavity. It isrestricted to “near” the center of the cavity. If this restrictionapplies to neutrons, they also have an even smaller diameter to cross.Thus, their rate of reflection may be much higher than the estimate.This raises the probability of an oscillation accordingly.

As described in U.S. Published Application 2002/0037066, fullerenemolecules containing a population of trapped free neutrons exhibit betaparticle emissions with a decay half-life of 10.25 minutes. Thishalf-life is due to the beta decay of the trapped free neutrons. If thepopulation of trapped free neutrons oscillates between the matter andantimatter state as Ignatovich¹ and Golub² predict, the fullerenemolecules will also emit electron-positron annihilation gamma energy(Ann. γ) with a half-life of 10.25 minutes. The applicants haverepeatedly detected this gamma emission and measured its half-life. TheAnn. γ emission has both the predicted energy, 511 KeV, and thepredicted half-life, 10.25 minutes.

The beta decay of neutrons does not release enough energy to createpositrons. The creation of positrons requires a minimum of 1.022 MeVregardless of the process. Free neutron beta decay releases only0.782353 MeV. Neutron-antineutron oscillations produce positronsdirectly by positron decay of antineutrons as well as by numeroussecondary processes.

Many processes that occur subsequent to a proton-antiproton annihilationproduce the electron-positron, Ann. γ emission observed in thisinvention. They all require the decay of an antineutron as the initialprocess. The antineutron decay process has a half-life of 10.25 minutes.All the subsequent processes producing electron-positron Ann. γemissions that result from an antineutron decay are virtuallyinstantaneous by comparison. As a result, these subsequent Ann. γemissions will also appear to have a 10.25-minute half-life.

If fullerenes do not form internal adducts with neutrons, theirradiation of pure fullerenes by neutrons will produce neither betadecay events nor Ann. γ events with 10.25-minute half-lives. Detectionof only beta decay radiation with a 10.25-minute half-life indicatesformation of internal neutron adducts as was documented in the U.S.Published Application 2002/0037066. Detection of both the beta decay andthe electron-positron Ann. γ with 10.25-minute half-lives indicates thatboth adducted neutrons and antineutrons due to neutron-antineutronoscillations are present in the fullerenes.

U.S. Published Application 2002/0037066, discusses the liberation oftrapped neutrons from the interiors of fullerene molecules. Briefly, anyof a number processes that release a neutron from the fullerene moleculewill also accomplish this result for the antineutrons.

It is also possible to form a beam of fullerene molecules containingtrapped neutrons and antineutrons in a particle accelerator. Once theaccelerator forms the beam, it can direct the beam onto a thin membraneof metal or ceramic. That will stop the fullerenes but not the neutronsand antineutrons. As noted by the earlier patent application, this artpermits the creation of a uniform beam of neutrons and antineutrons atenergies above those available in natural nuclear reactions. Theinvention in this current disclosure is that these techniques create auniform beam of mixed neutrons and antineutrons. The applicants areunaware of any other art that can produce a uniform beam of high-energyneutrons and antineutrons.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates a timeline for the experimental procedure.

FIG. 2 is a graphic of normalized, integrated “remnant” data left afterall events due to contaminants and background activities have beenremoved from the first hour time history of normalized, integrated 511KeV Ann. γ events recorded after the sample left the neutron flux.

FIG. 3 is a comparison of the normalized, integrated remnant data fromFIG. 2 compared to the 10.39-minute half-life “best” curve fitnormalized, integrated, exponential, decay curve and the 10.25-minutenormalized, integrated, exponential, decay curve of free antineutrons.

FIG. 4 is a comparison of the normalized, cumulative remnant data fromFIG. 2 compared to the 10.25-minute normalized, integrated, exponential,decay curve of free antineutrons. The decay curves of the threecontaminants in the fullerene sample are also plotted on the same chartto show that there is no confusion between the remnant data and thedecay of the detected contaminants.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The applicants offer the following experimental procedure and results assubstantial evidence of the reality of the invention in this disclosure.The applicants do not intend that this demonstration in any wayconstrains the claims for the invention in this disclosure. Likewisethis demonstration does not restrict or define the applications of theinvention. This demonstration is merely one instructive and explanatoryapplication of the invention in this disclosure.

The results produced by this experiment completely conform to thepredictions of Ignatovich¹ and Golub². The experimental results areunprecedented. These experimental results have no other plausibleexplanation that conforms to any peer-reviewed, published predictions.

General Description of the Experimental Procedure That Demonstrates theInvention

Neutrons decay through the release of beta particles. Antineutrons decaythrough the release of positrons. The decay half-life of a population offree neutrons is 10.25 minutes. The presumption is that the decayhalf-life of a population of antineutrons is also 10.25 minutes.

While the beta particles do not further interact to produce additionalgamma emissions, due to the relatively low energy of the beta particlereleased from a decaying neutron, the positrons annihilate withelectrons very shortly after their emission from the decayingantineutrons, to produce a well-characterized gamma ray of 511 KeV. Betaparticles are directly detectable by a beta particle counter while thepositron emission is detectable by its 511 KeV gamma ray emission with agamma spectrometer.

Counting beta particle emissions from the sample as a function of timeand then performing an analysis of this data to determine that thehalf-life of the measured beta particle emissions is 10.25 minutes willdetermine the presence of a population of free neutrons in a sample offullerenes. Other radioactive emitters in the sample, should they exist,can also emit detectable beta particles. Although these beta particlesare of different energies, the beta counter only detects a beta particleand not its energy. Hence, a mathematical process called “datastripping,” which has been used widely for many years, will isolate andremove the counted beta particles from non-neutron sources. This resultsin a reduced data set containing only “remnant” beta events.Determination of the half-life of these events will identify theirsource.

In a like manner, the presence of a population of free antineutrons in afullerene sample can be determined by counting, as a function of time,the gamma ray events with the specific 511 KeV gamma ray energycorresponding to positron-electron annihilation. A gamma spectrometercounts these events. Other radioactive emitters in the sample, shouldthey exist, can emit positrons or other high-energy particles thatresult in the production of positrons and produce positron-electronannihilation gamma photons at 511 KeV. As with the analysis of the betaparticle data, the application of the data stripping process willisolate and remove the counted annihilation events from non-antineutronsources. This results in a reduced data set containing only remnant 511KeV gamma ray events that are not due to contaminant or backgroundemissions. A simple analysis of these data will determine the half-lifeof their source.

U.S. Published Application 2002/0037066 discussed the application ofthis process to the detection of the decay of a population of freeneutrons. In this demonstration, neutrons first irradiate one sample offullerenes. The subsequent 511 KeV gamma ray annihilation energymeasurements and data analyses demonstrate that a sizable remnant ofgamma ray events exists. The half-life of the source of this radiationcorresponds to, within experimental error, the 10.25-minute half-life ofthe antineutron.

Detailed Description of the Experimental Procedure That Demonstrates theInvention

I. Nomenclature

-   BG_(Cold)=the rate of background radiation events with the a cold    reactor-   BG_(Hot)=the rate of background radiation events with the reactor at    the power setting of the experiment-   N_(Calc.)=the calculated cumulative number of decay events at any    time, t, where t_(Obs.)<t<60 minutes-   N_(I)=the initial abundance of the emitter responsible for “remnant    data”-   N_(Na)=the abundance of ²⁴Na in the sample, the derivative is the    intensity of radiation due to ²⁴Na decay-   N_(NCalc.)=the normalized value of N_(Calc.)-   N_(NObs.)=the normalized value of N_(Obs.)-   N_(Obs.)=the observed cumulative number of remnant decay events at    any time, t, where t_(Obs.)<t<60 minutes-   t=the time after the samples leave the neutron flux of the reactor    where t_(Obs.)<t<60 minutes-   t_(m)=the time a “subsequent data set” is measured to facilitate the    “data stripping” process, t_(m)>60 minutes-   t_(Obs.)=the time when the observation of cumulative events begins-   t_(1/2)=the decay half-life of a radioisotope-   ΔN=the number of observed decay events occurring in a given finite    time step, Δt-   Δt=the length of any finite time step used to calculate decay rates

All times are in minutes. All rates are in events per minute. C₇₀ is thenotation for the weight of the fullerene molecules that this specificexperiment uses. The applicants claim the properties demonstrated forC₇₀ for other weights of fullerene. C_(x) is the more general notation.

II. Neutron Irradiation of Fullerenes

The Ann. γ events, if due to antineutron decay, are only distinguishablefrom other sources by their half-life. Thus, to demonstrate theinvention, the applicants take great care, in part through the purchaseof high-purity samples, to exclude contaminants from the fullerenesamples in this demonstration. The most frequent source of theapplicants fullerene samples is Materials and Electrochemical ResearchCorporation (MER Corp.), 7960 South Kolb Road, Tucson, Ariz. 85706,Phone: 520.574.1980, Fax: 520.574.1983, MERCORP@MERCORP.COM. Theapplicants buy material with the catalog number MR7SB.

The applicants discard fullerene samples containing contaminants,detectable by a gamma spectrometer with neutron activation half-livesbetween 2.25 and 60 minutes. This insures that any contaminant emitterin the fullerenes has a half-life separated by a factor of at least 4.6from the 10.25-minute half-life associated with free neutron or freeantineutron decay.

The original source of the neutrons in this demonstration is notimportant to the invention. In order to demonstrate this invention, theapplicants employed neutrons produced in a nuclear reactor. This sourceis inexpensive and it supplies a high flux of neutrons, approximately5×10¹³ neutrons per square centimeter per second.

The neutron irradiation of the fullerene sample is similar to a neutronactivation experiment. The neutron irradiation of the fullerene sampleoccurs in a high flux location in a nuclear reactor. The sampleirradiation lasts for a period appropriate to the half-life of freeneutrons. Typical exposure times are 5 to 15 minutes. The reactor poweris set as close to the maximum as circumstances permit to produce asmany neutrons as possible. At the Ohio State Reactor Laboratory, thelocation where this demonstration occurred, the maximum reactor power is500 Kilowatts. The measurement of the background radiation level,BG_(Hot), for the gamma spectrometer occurs while the reactor isirradiating the fullerene sample. The data reduction that demonstratesthe presence of the Ann. γ requires this background measurement.

Transfer of the fullerene sample from the reactor vial into a clean,un-irradiated vial occurs immediately after removal of the vialcontaining the fullerene sample from the reactor. This insures that thevial does not contribute to any observed radiation. Sealing the new vialinsures that no volatile or gaseous species such as ⁴¹Ar leaks out ofthe vial and mimics the decay of some non-existent specie.

III. Data Collection

Once the neutron irradiation of the fullerene sample provides apopulation of trapped neutrons and antineutrons inside the internalcavities of the fullerenes, data are collected. The purpose of thesedata is two-fold. First, it is necessary to identify and remove allactivity that is due to background emissions and neutron-activatedcontaminant emissions from the raw data. Second, any residual activitymust conform to the results predicted by Ignatovich¹ and Golub². Theprocedures in this section collect all the data needed to satisfy thesetwo purposes.

After the transfer of the fullerene sample to a new vial, the procedureassays the activated contaminants in the fullerene sample with the gammaspectrometer to insure that there are no observable contaminants withhalf-lives between 2.25 and 60 minutes. In the actual experiments, thetypical contaminants are only ²⁴Na (t_(1/2)=897.54 minutes), ²⁸Al(t_(1/2)=2.2414 minutes), and Ar (t_(1/2)=109.61 minutes). Someexperiments exhibit only one or two of these contaminants. The fullerenesample in this demonstration exhibited all three contaminants.

The fullerene sample is not disturbed again for the rest of theexperiment once it is in the gamma spectrometer. Movement will changethe sample-to-detector geometry. This can affect the observed decay rateand corrupt the data.

This procedure insures that the half-lives of the activated species aredifferent enough from each other and from the half-life of freeantineutrons that a technique known as “data stripping” is applicable.This technique is an accepted data reduction procedure for neutronactivation experiments. Rakovic¹¹ and Lyon¹² describe it in detail. Themethod provides a way to separate the data from two or more emitterswhen the only observable difference between the emitters is theirrespective half-lives. FIG. 1. is the timeline of a typical experimentalprocedure.

Simply waiting for a minimum of 11.25 minutes after removing thefillerene sample from the reactor and before collecting any data otherthan the contaminant assay effectively removes any influence fromactivated ²⁸Al. In this time, five ²⁸Al half-lives, 97% of any ²⁸Alpresent in the fullerene sample will decay. Only about half of thetrapped neutrons are lost. The influences of ²⁴Na and ⁴¹Ar, by virtue oftheir longer half-lives, are virtually unaffected.

The first 11.25 minutes after removal of the fullerene sample from thethermal neutron flux allow time to transfer the fullerene sample to aclean, un-irradiated vial. The gamma spectrometer also assays theactivated contaminants in the fullerene sample during this time.

After the vial transfer, the assay, and the delay to eliminate anyemissions from ²⁸Al, one records the cumulative activity of the samplecontinuously for 48.75 minutes or until t=60 minutes, whichever comesfirst. The applicants refer to these 48.75 minutes of data as the “firsthour” time history. The first hour time history is simply the totalnumber of 511 KeV Ann. γ events observed since t_(Obs). One records thiscumulative total at 30-second time steps. The start of the first hourtime history of cumulative activity is t_(Obs.), the time when theobservation of cumulative events begins. The first hour time historyends one hour after the fullerenes exit the neutron flux.

Note that in the sample data presented in the charts, the first hourdata collection actually began at 17.5 minutes. The times quoted aboveare the ideal times. In real world experiments, the steps oftransferring the fullerene sample to a clean vial and the contaminantassay sometimes take longer than planned. Even though the trappedneutron/antineutron population continued to decay during the additional6.25 minutes, the results were in excellent agreement with theory.Regardless of when t=t_(Obs.), the first hour data collection ends att=60.

“Normalization” of the cumulative total in the first hour time historyor any other decay data in this disclosure means that the total numberof events recorded at each time step is divided by the total number ofcounts in the final time step of the data.

51.25 minutes after t=0, five neutron half-lives, 97% of the neutronspresent at t=0 are gone. Effectively, only the ²⁴Na, ⁴¹Ar and theBG_(Hot) background are detectable by the gamma spectrometer. Theassumption is that the same slightly elevated background radiation leveldue to the reactor operating at full power is still present until thefirst hour time history of cumulative activity is complete. After thistime, the assumption is that the background radiation is BG_(Cold), thebackground activity with a cold reactor. 540 minutes after t=0, equal tofive ⁴¹Ar half-lives, only the ²⁴Na and BG_(Cold) are left.

Data Reduction

The sample data and calculations in this discussion of the experimentalprocedure are all from the Ann. γ data from Sample E, Run 3, 27 Nov.2000. The gamma spectrometer assay allows scheduling of subsequent datacollections needed to strip the influences of the two long half-lifecontaminants, ²⁴Na and ⁴¹Ar.

The assumption is that the rate of decay of the activity in thefullerene sample after 540 minutes is due entirely to the cold reactorbackground, BG_(Cold), and to ²⁴Na decay. The assumption is that all⁴¹Ar as well as all shorter half-life emitters in the fullerene samplehave decayed to background at this time. At 540 minutes, this processrequires a measurement of the decay rate of the fullerene sample. Thedecay rate in Sample E is collected by measuring the number of 511 KeVAnn. γ events, ΔN, in a finite time, Δt, centered on the scheduledmeasurement time, t_(m) or 540 minutes. In this experiment, ΔN was thenumber of 511 KeV Ann. γ events occurring from 530 minutes until 550minutes after t=0.

Since this was the only decay rate measurement needed in this experimentsubsequent to the “first hour” data, the fullerene sample was removedfrom the gamma spectrometer and BG_(Cold) was measured similarly to thedecay rate of ²⁴Na.

The following expression calculates the rate of accumulation of 511 KeVAnn. γ gamma events due to the decay of ²⁴Na at 540 minutes:(dN _(Calc.) /dt)_(t=t) _(m) ΔN/Δt−BG _(Cold)  (1)

This expression defines the rate of accumulation of ²⁴Na decay events at540 minutes. A handbook or the National Nuclear Data Center websiteprovides the half-life of ²⁴Na, as well as all other activated species.The exponential decay function provides the rate of accumulation of ²⁴Nadecay events at any time, t after t_(Obs.):(dN _(Calc.) /dt)_(t=t) _(m) =−(dN _(Na) /dt)_(t=t) _(Obs.)·exp[−1n(2)·(t _(m) −t _(Obs.))/t _(1/2)]  (2)

Rearranging the terms and combining Eqs. (1) and (2) yields an equationfor the initial intensity of ²⁴Na decay at t=t_(Obs.): $\begin{matrix}{\left( {{\mathbb{d}N_{Na}}/{\mathbb{d}t}} \right)_{t = t_{{Obs}.}} = {- \frac{{\Delta\quad{N/\Delta}\quad t} - {BG}_{Cold}}{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\ln(2)}} \cdot {\left( {t_{m} - t_{{Obs}.}} \right)/t_{1/2}}} \right\rbrack}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

The integral of Eq. (2), when the initial value of N_(Calc.) is assumedto be zero at t=t_(Obs.), gives the value N_(Calc.) at any time, t:$\begin{matrix}{N_{{Calc}.} = {{- \frac{\left( {{\mathbb{d}N_{Na}}/{\mathbb{d}t}} \right)_{t = t_{{Obs}.}}}{\left\lbrack {{\ln(2)}/t_{1/2}} \right\rbrack}} \cdot \left\{ {1 - {\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\ln(2)}} \cdot {\left( {t - t_{{Obs}.}} \right)/t_{1/2}}} \right\rbrack}} \right\}}} & (4)\end{matrix}$

Combining Eqs. (3) and (4) yields an expression for N_(Calc.) at anytime, t after t_(Obs.), that is entirely in terms of the subsequent datameasurement scheduled by the results of the gamma spectrometer, the coldbackground gamma activity, BG_(Cold), and data available in handbooks:$\begin{matrix}{N_{{Calc}.} = {\frac{{\Delta\quad{N/\Delta}\quad t} - {BG}_{Cold}}{\left\lbrack {{\ln(2)}/t_{1/2}} \right\rbrack \cdot {\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\ln(2)}} \cdot {\left( {t_{m} - t_{{Obs}.}} \right)/t_{1/2}}} \right\rbrack}} \cdot \left\{ {1 - {\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\ln(2)}} \cdot {\left( {t - t_{{Obs}.}} \right)/t_{1/2}}} \right\rbrack}} \right\}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

Equation (5) is the contribution of ²⁴Na to the first hour time historyof 511 KeV Ann. γ gamma events. The number of ²⁴Na events, N_(Calc.), ateach time step in the first hour time history may be calculated andsubtracted from the total. Data needed to calculate BG_(Hot) arecollected while the fullerene sample is in the reactor. The calculationof BG_(Hot) is the same as the calculation of BG_(Cold). MultiplyingBG_(Hot) by the length of a time step in the first hour time history of511 KeV Ann. γ gamma events and subtracting the product from each datapoint removes the contribution of hot background events from the firsthour time history.

In cases where there are two or more sets of subsequent datacollections, as determined by the results of the gamma spectrometerassay of the irradiated fullerene sample, the process applies a similarprocess sequentially to each set of subsequent data. It begins with thelongest half-life contaminant and works sequentially to the shorterhalf-life contaminants.

In this example, after removal of the 511 KeV Ann. γ gamma events due to²⁴Na decay, the last remaining contaminant with a half-life longer than51.25 minutes is the ⁴¹Ar in the fullerene sample. The removal of 511KeV Ann. γ gamma events due to the last long-life contaminant, ⁴¹Ar inthis example, proceeds by a slightly different process than the removalof other long half-life contaminants.

There is no need to schedule a subsequent data collection for thisremaining contaminant. An assumption, stated earlier, is that anytrapped neutrons or antineutrons all effectively decay out of thefullerenes by t=51.25 minutes. This assumption permits the calculationof N_(Calc.) for the ⁴¹Ar contaminant directly from the first hour timehistory of 511 KeV Ann. γ gamma events. ΔN is simply the sum of theremaining gamma events recorded after 51.25 minutes. Remember, all ofthe other events from the background activity and the other contaminantsare already gone. Equation (5) becomes: $\begin{matrix}{N_{{Calc}.} = {\frac{\Delta\quad{N/\left( {60 - 51.25} \right)}}{{\left\lbrack {{\ln(2)}/t_{1/2}} \right\rbrack \cdot \exp}\left\{ {{- {\ln(2)}} \cdot {\left\lbrack {\left( {60 + 51.25} \right)/2} \right\rbrack/t_{1/2}}} \right\}} \cdot \left\{ {1 - {\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\ln(2)}} \cdot {\left( {t - t_{{Obs}.}} \right)/t_{1/2}}} \right\rbrack}} \right\}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

After the subtraction of the ⁴¹Ar contribution to the first hour timehistory of 511 KeV Ann. γ events, there should be no 511 KeV Ann. γevents left in the data set. The process has eliminated all identifiablesources of 511 KeV Ann. γ event data from the first hour time history.As FIG. 2 illustrates, data are left.

These remnant data have a half-life that is close, at 10.39 minutes, tothe accepted half-life of free neutrons and, presumably antineutrons,e.g., 10.25 minutes. FIG. 3. shows the close agreement between theaccepted 10.25-minute cumulative decay curve and the data generated inthis experiment.

The gamma spectrometer at Ohio State can detect all gamma ray-emittingatomic species produced by neutron activation in the reactor at OhioState. The gamma spectrometer detects 511 KeV Ann. γ-emissions with ahalf-life near 10.25-minutes. The gamma spectrometer does not detect anyatomic specie that can produce such emissions. These remnant emissionscompletely conform to what the gamma spectrometer would detect if theremnant emissions were a result of the decay of antineutrons.

FIG. 4. shows a comparison of the measured remnant data, the10.25-minute half-life, and the detected contaminants when plotted asnormalized, cumulative decay.

The conclusion is that the remnant emissions are due to the decay ofantineutrons. This conclusion supports the assertion that the inventionin this disclosure produces antineutrons by neutron-antineutronoscillation. Since antiprotons are a decay daughter of antineutrons, anunstable particle, the invention must also produce antiprotons.

The applicants emphasize that the detected remnant data represents themajority of the detected 511 KeV Ann. γ events in the unreduced rawdata. Trace data are not the basis for these results. Commerciallyavailable fullerenes yield these results. No extraordinary processing ofthe fullerenes is required to obtain these data. This experiment usedfullerenes that were very clean but they were ordered from MERCorporation's product catalog.

Applications

Current art does not enable controlled production of antineutrons inpredictable quantities. They remain exotic particles observed,occasionally and indirectly, in reactions in particle accelerators. Theinvention in this disclosure enables a controlled process that producessignificant quantities of antineutrons.

This invention also enables the formation of a controlled beam ofantiprotons at a uniform and arbitrary energy. This invention alsoenables a mixed beam of neutrons and antineutrons at a uniform andarbitrary energy.

This invention enables direct confirmation that the half-lives ofantineutrons and neutrons are identical. At present, it is only anaccepted assumption that the half-lives are identical. The process canalso produce antineutrons in quantities that are significant toengineering.

Current art enables the controlled production of antiprotons insignificant quantities. Only a few large particle accelerators have everdone this before now. Presently, only CERN and Fermi lab produceantiprotons in quantity.

This invention can change this situation significantly. It enablesproduction of antiprotons at any location where a neutron flux isavailable. This includes but is not limited to most of the world'sresearch reactors. The cost of production will be little more than thecost of operating the reactor.

The annihilation of protons and antiprotons represents the mostconcentrated form of energy known to exist. The annihilation of a protonand an antiproton converts 100% of the mass of the two particles intoenergy. The ability to produce antiprotons inexpensively and insignificant quantities makes this energy available for engineeringpurposes.

The late Doctor Robert L. Forward published extensively on thetechnologies that plentiful and inexpensive antiprotons would enable.His book Mirror Matter ¹⁵ summarizes many of his previous publications.

Among these are new diagnostic and treatments in medicine. A beam ofantiprotons can do many of the tasks now performed by MRI, PET, andX-ray machines. The same beam that detects diseased tissue may alsotreat it. This radiation treatment is controllable so that there is noinjury to healthy tissue. Present radiation treatments cannot do this.

Similarly, a beam of antiprotons can perform as a tool for detectingflaws in materials. Not only can it detect a flaw or contaminant inparent material, it can repair some of them. As in the medicalapplication, antiprotons can perform this repair without causing anyadditional damage.

The discovery^(13,14) in 1991 that antiprotons catalyze nuclear fissionreactions far more efficiently and in far more nuclei than neutrons isanother property of antiprotons that no one has explored completely.Neutrons only catalyze fission in three very rare or manmade nuclei,²³³U, ²³⁵U, and ²³⁹Pu. Antiprotons can catalyze fission in many common,naturally occurring, non-radioactive nuclei. Antiproton catalyzedfission produces many more neutrons and may release more energy thanneutron-catalyzed fission.

One application of antiproton-catalyzed fission that has receivedsignificant research effort is propulsion. Antiprotons provide a varietyof propulsion options for vehicles as diverse as submarines, aircraft,and spacecraft. The potential power or thrust per pound is literallymany orders of magnitude greater than current art chemical propellantsand even current art nuclear propulsion technology can deliver. This isespecially true when antiproton catalyzed fission is used to initiatethermonuclear reactions. Dr. Forward¹⁵ covers some of these applicationsin his book. The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronauticspublication Fusion Energy in Space Propulsion ¹⁶ also covers thissubject in detail.

A recent newspaper article¹⁷ discuss a new solid-state means ofproducing neutrons using a special chip. This may provide an alternativesource of neutrons and, when coupled to this invention, provide themeans to generate antiprotons and antineutrons at locations remote fromnuclear reactors.

This invention also enables a new science of nuclear fission and fusionreactions catalyzed by antineutron reactions.

REFERENCES

¹V. K. Ignatovich translated by G. B. Pontecorvo, The Physics ofUltracold Neutrons, Clarendon Press, Oxford U. K, 1990, pp. 304-305,ISBN 0-19-851015-2.

²R. Golub, D. Richardson, and S. K. Lamoreaux, Ultra-cold Neutrons, AdamHilger IOP Publishing Ltd., 1991 p. 216, ISBN 0-7503-0115-5.

³V. K. Ignatovich translated by G. B. Pontecorvo, The Physics ofUltracold Neutrons, Clarendon Press, Oxford U. K, 1990, pp. 1-33, ISBN0-19-851015-2.

⁴R. Golub, D. Richardson, and S. K. Lamoreaux, Ultra-cold Neutrons, AdamHilger IOP Publishing Ltd., 1991 pp. 19-31, ISBN 0-7503-0115-5.

⁵Yu. Yu. Kosvintsev, Yu. A. Kushnir, V. I. Morozov, and G. I. Terekhov,“Possible Use of Wall Traps and Magnetic Traps of Ultra-Cold Neutronsfor Measuring the lifetime of the Free Neutron”, translated from PriboryI Tekhnika Eksperimenta (Instruments and Experimental Techniques), Vol.20, No. 1, Pt. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1977, pp. 43-45

⁶Ch. Niedermayer, I. D. Reid, E. Roduner, E. J. Ansaldo, C. Bernhard, U.Binninger, H. Glutckler, E. Recknagel, J. I. Budnick, and A. Weidinger,“Simultaneous Observation of Muonium and Multiple Free Radicals inMuon-implanted C₇₀ ,” Physics Review B, Vol. 47, No. 16, 15 April 1993,p. 10,923.

⁷p. W. Percival and S. Wlodek, “The Structure of C₆₀Mu and otherFullerenyl Radicals,” Chemical Physics Letter, Vol. 196, No. 3, 4, 14Aug. 1992, p.

⁸S. K. Estreicher, C. D. Latham, M. I. Heggie, R. Jones, and S. Oberg,“Stable and Metastable States of C₆₀H: BuckminsterfullereneMonohydride,” Chemical Physics Letters, Vol. 196, No. 3, 4, 14 Aug.1992, p. 311

⁹H. A. Jimenez-Vasquez, R. J. Cross, M. Saunders, and R. J. Poreda,“Hot-atom Incorporation of Tritium Atoms into Fullerenes,” ChemicalPhysics Letters, Vol. 229, 21 Oct. 1994, pp. 111-114

¹⁰P. R. Huffman, C. R. Brome, J. S. Butterworth, K. J. Coakley, M. S.Dewey, S. N. Dzhosyuk, R. Golub, G. L. Greene, K. Habicht, S. K.Lamoreaux, C. E. H. Mattoni, D. N. McKinsey, F. E. Wietfeldt, and J. M.Doyle, “Magnetic Trapping of Neutrons,”, Nature, Vol. 403, 6 Jan. 2000,pp. 62-64

¹¹Miloslav Rakovic translated by D. Cohen, Activation Analysis, CRCPress, 1970; pp 191-194, Library of Congress Catalog Number 71-107282.

¹²William S. Lyon—editor, Guide to Activation Analysis, D. Van NostrandCompany, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1964, pp. 131-133, Library of CongressCatalog Number 64-23964

¹³R. A. Lewis, R. Newton, G. A. Smith, and R. J. Kanzleiter“Antiproton-Boosted Microfission,” Nuclear Science and Engineering, Vol.109, Dec 1991, pp. 411-415

¹⁴B. Chen, et al, “Neutron Yields and Angular Distributions Produced inAntiproton Annihilation at Rest in Uranium,” Physical Review C, Vol. 45,May 1992, pp. 2332-2337

¹⁵Robert L. Forward, Ph.D. and Joel Davis, Mirror Matter PioneeringAntimatter Physics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1988, ISBN 0-471-62812-3

¹⁶Terry Kammash—editor, Fusion Energy in Space Propulsion, AmericanInstitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1995, ISBN 1-56347-184-1

¹⁷Dan Vergano, “Gee-whiz nuclear-fusion gadget surprises Scientists withits simplicity,” USA Today article, p. 8D, 28 Apr. 2005

Having described the invention in detail and by reference to specificembodiments thereof, it will be apparent the numerous modifications andvariations are possible without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe invention.

1. A method for obtaining free thermal antineutrons within the cage-likestructure of a fullerene molecule comprising irradiating the fullerenemolecule with free neutrons causing free neutrons to be trapped withinthe fullerene molecule wherein the trapped neutron oscillates betweenthe neutron and antineutron states.
 2. The method of claim 1 whereinsaid fullerene molecule is a C₆₀ or C₇₀ fullerene molecule.
 3. Themethod of claim 2 wherein said fullerene molecule is a C₇₀ fullerenemolecule.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein said method further comprisesdetermining the presence of said trapped thermal antineutrons in thecage-like structure of said fullerene molecule by subjecting thefullerene to the steps of: (1) irradiating a sample of fullerenemolecules with a neutron flux; (2) measuring the 511 KeV Ann. γbackground event rate with a high-resolution gamma spectroscope duringstep (1) to obtain a “hot background” radiation rate for subsequent datareduction calculations; (3) withdrawing the fullerene molecules from theflux and performing a gamma spectrographic analysis on said fullerenesample using the same high-resolution gamma spectroscope as step (2),within about 11.25 minutes after the sample is withdrawn from thethermal neutron flux; (4) measuring the cumulative 511 KeV Ann. γ eventsin said fullerene sample beginning at least 11.25 minutes after step(3); (5) measuring the 511 KeV Ann. γ event rate data; (6) measuring thebackground 511 KeV Ann. γ event rate after the removal of the fullerenesfrom the high-resolution gamma spectroscope at the end of the experimentto obtain a “cold background” radiation rate; (7) determining thecontribution of each identified contaminant to the cumulative 511 KeVAnn. γ event activity measured during the first hour time history; and(8) subtracting the calculated activity of each contaminant from thecumulative, observed, 511 KeV Ann. γ event data recorded in Step (4). 5.The method of claim 4 wherein said fullerene is a C₆₀ or C₇₀ fullerene.6. The method of claim 5 wherein said fullerene is a C₇₀ fullerene. 7.The method of claim 4 wherein said trapped thermal antineutron hasthermal energy of about 0.025 electron volts.
 8. A fullerene moleculecontaining a free thermal antineutron trapped within the cage-likestructure of said fullerene molecule.
 9. The fullerene molecule of claim8 wherein said fullerene molecule is a C₆₀ or C₇₀ fullerene.
 10. Thefullerene molecule of claim 9 wherein said fullerene molecule is a C₇₀fullerene.
 11. The fullerene molecule of claims 8, 9, and 10 whereinsaid trapped antineutron decays to a positron, and an antiproton. 12.The fullerene molecule of claim 8 where the fullerene molecule alsocontains trapped free neutrons.
 13. The fullerene molecule of claim 8where the fullerene molecule is useful as a source of positrons,neutrons, antineutrons, or antiprotons.
 14. A method for producingantiprotons comprising irradiating a fullerene molecule with freeneutrons and trapping the neutrons within the fullerene molecule suchthat the neutrons oscillate between neutron and antineutron states andin the antineutron state decay and produce antiprotons.